Q.2 2023

Data Points

A Selection of AIRINC Research Results

This quarter’s cost of living research was conducted primarily in Europe, Asia, and mainland Southeast Asia.

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Housing Update

Snapshots of expatriate-quality rental markets around the world

Tokyo, Japan

Bucharest, Romania

United Kingdom

Dhaka, Bangladesh

Netherlands

Istanbul, Turkey

Tokyo, Japan

Sources noted that higher asking rents this year are due to high demand and a very limited number of large apartments and houses. Many Americans have returned post pandemic restrictions and some companies are moving in from Hong Kong and China, creating new Asian headquarters in Tokyo. Along with new and returning expatriates, Japanese executive families are also competing for larger units in prime areas.

Bucharest, Romania

The government increased the rent income tax in January 2023, so most owners increased their rents to accommodate the tax increase. People coming from Ukraine rented most of what was on the market last year. Availability is low and although some new units will be coming to market, high construction costs mean rents are likely to remain high for the foreseeable future.

United Kingdom

Rents rose in the second quarter; vacancy rates remain low, and demand has increased from all sectors. In London the pace of rental inflation is slowing but rents are still up across the city. The situation is similar in most UK locations; Aberdeen rents increased as demand grows in an already tight market. New “green” laws in Scotland have also forced landlords to comply with the regulations which have had a knock-on effect on rent prices. Grimsby is up due to the increasing number of people moving to the area with a limited supply of quality housing.

Dhaka, Bangladesh

The luxury rental market in Dhaka is growing due to foreign investment. More expatriates arriving from Japan, China, and South Korea, in addition to a growing local middle class, has increased demand.

Netherlands

Rents are up with lower vacancy rates for properties available to a large and growing pool of expats. Government activity to allow more social housing has further reduced the private housing supply and proposed legislation could complicate the rental scene even more. New construction is very limited due to stringent green construction laws and the lack of space in already developed larger cities like Amsterdam.

Istanbul, Turkey

Rents in Istanbul are up as the number of expatriates and people who were fleeing the war in Ukraine increased demand. Existing tenants are reluctant to move given the rapid depreciation of the lira (TRY) and rising rents in local currency.

Goods and Services Update

Highlights from AIRINC’s in-depth research

Over the past year the Argentine peso has lost roughly half its value. Confidence in the Argentine economy both at home and abroad is low as the country battles rising prices and an increasingly unsustainable debt burden. Government-reported annual inflation has been over 100% each month since February. Although Argentina is no stranger to economic turbulence, these are the highest inflation levels since the early 2000s when the country was in the midst of another economic crisis and a sovereign debt default which has impacted its financial standing for decades afterward.

Argentina is a major grain exporter and a historic drought has cut harvest numbers significantly. This reduction in exports has led to an attendant drop in foreign currency inflows and reserves in the country. The central bank is attempting to curb inflation and promote ARS accounts by raising interest rates, which are now at 97%, but these actions have not yet been enough to turn the tide. A deal with the International Monetary Fund signed during the previous administration is a divisive political issue and is in ongoing negotiations. The current president, Alberto Fernández, has announced that he will not run for re-election in October of this year.

Official currency exchange restrictions which limit the purchase of US dollars to $200 per month also mean that the parallel rate, otherwise known as the “blue dollar”, is an active exchange market. The blue dollar may be twice as high as the official exchange rate.

Goods and Services Inflation

Selected locations with inflation higher than 5% for 6 months

Bulgaria

Estonia

Guam

Hungary

Kazakhstan

Laos

Moldova

Mongolia

Northern Cyprus

Pakistan

Poland

Romania

Serbia

Slovakia

Slovenia

Turkey

Ukraine

Uzbekistan

Change vs USD: -24.5%

Burundi

Currency: BIF

Change vs EUR: -28%

Change vs USD: -26.4%

Zimbabwe

Currency: ZWL

Change vs EUR: -83.9%

Change vs USD: -83.5%

Country
Tax Update

Changes in expatriate tax

Australia

Canada

India

Spain

Venezuela

Australia

Family allowances have increased slightly. Tax rates and brackets are unchanged. The Low Income Tax Offset (LITO) is unchanged. Employees do not have compulsory contributions to social security (superannuation). However, the employer-paid superannuation contribution rate has increased from 10.5% to 11% for the 2023/2024 tax year, and the maximum annual contribution has increased from AUD 25,292 to AUD 27,399. The superannuation rate is scheduled to increase incrementally by 0.5% every year until it is 12% by July 1, 2025. A scheduled decrease in the tax rates and brackets will be implemented for the 2024/2025 tax year. There is no change in the income tax due on employment income for the 2023/2024 tax year.

There are two changes announced that will impact the tax treatment of Superannuation Funds. First, beginning with the 2025/2026 tax year, the concessional tax rates on earnings within Superannuation funds will be assessed using two rates – the existing 15% concessional rate on earnings (paid by the fund), and a 30% rate on earnings on fund balances over AUD 3,000,000. The government will consult with the public on how to implement these changes, including the possibility the individual account holder being responsible for the additional 15% tax on the earnings balance over the threshold (additional tax not paid by the fund). Second, beginning with the 2026/2027 tax year, employer contributions to Superannuation must be made at the same time as when salary and wages are paid. This is intended to reduce unpaid mandatory contributions and strengthen the Superannuation system.

Canada

Inflation indexing has been applied to tax brackets, credits, and thresholds. The social security has increased slightly. Quebec implemented tax rate reductions for lower incomes. The net effect is a small increase in social security and a decrease in tax for most taxpayers across Canada.

Canada has enacted an Under-used Housing Tax (UHT) on qualifying property owners to help ease the residential housing shortage. Owners impacted include Canadian non-citizens that do not have a permanent residence in Canada, qualifying trusts, corporations, and partnerships. Canadian citizens and permanent residents of Canada are exempt from UHT. The UHT is 1% of the property’s value. Related legislation prohibits purchases of residential property by non-residents during 2023 and 2024. Toronto and Vancouver have implemented similar Vacant Home Taxes designed to impose taxes on individuals who own residential property that is left vacant. Exceptions apply.

India

The India government has passed the Finance Ace 2023 on March 31, 2023. The Act includes several significant tax changes applicable to individuals including a revised Concessional Tax Regime (CTR) that is now the default tax regime applicable for employees. The CTR includes updated tax brackets with a top marginal tax rate of 30%, an increased standard deduction of INR 50,000, a reduction in the surcharge for higher incomes under the CTR, and the elimination of most deductions. The maximum tax rate including surcharges and cess (also known as a surtax) decreased from approximately 47.9% to 43.7%. Social security (known as Employee Provident Fund or EPF) contribution rates are unchanged. The net effect of these changes varies by income level.

Spain

The maximum annual social security contribution increased slightly from EUR 3,154 to EUR 3,426. The national and Barcelona tax rate schedules are unchanged, however the Madrid regional tax schedule has been adjusted slightly. The region of Madrid has enacted a new reduction of regional tax for qualifying ‘large families’ (3 or more children), in the amount of 50% of the regional tax, up to EUR 12,000 for joint filers. The net effect is a small increase in social security for most taxpayers, and a large decrease in tax for families with 3 or more children. Other Spanish regions have also enacted smaller, and often income-tested, deductions for ‘large families’.

Separately, Madrid has also provided a new deduction for families that purchase a new primary residence as a result of a birth or adoption (within 3 years of the birth or adoption). The deduction is 1% of the acquisition price, up to EUR 1,500, for the year of purchase, and the subsequent nine years, subject to certain other requirements.

Venezuela

The tax system is determined by reference to the Tax Unit Value (TUV) and the Monthly Minimum Salary (MMS). These factors allow the tax system to keep pace with inflation and are used to set the tax brackets, lump-sum deduction, tax credits, and annual maximum contributions to social security. The most recent adjustment to the TUV was published May 8, 2023, increasing the TUV from VES 0.4 to VES 9 reflecting the hyperinflation in Venezuela. The 2023 MMS increased from VES 130 to VES 1,000. The net effect of these changes is an increase in social security contributions and a decrease in tax.

Research Location Update

Q.1 2023 Researched Locations and Upcoming Q.2 2023 Locations

AIRINC researches more than one hundred fifty locations each quarter.

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Please contact your Client Services representative for more details and further information.

Data Points

A Selection of AIRINC Research Results

Housing Update

Snapshots of expatriate-quality rental markets around the world

Tokyo, Japan

Bucharest, Romania

United Kingdom

Dhaka, Bangladesh

Netherlands

Istanbul, Turkey

Tokyo, Japan

Bucharest, Romania

United Kingdom

Dhaka, Bangladesh

Netherlands

Istanbul, Turkey

Goods and Services Update

Highlights from AIRINC’s in-depth research

Goods and Services Inflation

Selected locations with inflation higher than 5% for 6 months

Bulgaria

Estonia

Guam

Hungary

Kazakhstan

Laos

Moldova

Mongolia

Northern Cyprus

Pakistan

Poland

Romania

Serbia

Slovakia

Slovenia

Turkey

Ukraine

Uzbekistan

Selected 3-month Exchange Rate fluctuations of more than 5%

Colombia

Ghana

Sri Lanka

Haiti

Albania

Brazil

Mexico

Poland

Hungary

Ascension Island

British Indian Ocean Territory

Falkland Islands

Gibraltar

Guernsey

Isle of Man

Jersey

Scotland

St. Helena

Tristan da Cunha

United Kingdom

Wales, U.K.

Sudan

Laos

Kenya

Russia

Suriname

Sierra Leone

Venezuela

Democratic Republic of Congo

Lebanon

Northern Cyprus

Turkey

Argentina

South Sudan

Nigeria

Angola

Burundi

Zimbabwe

CountryTax Update

Changes in expatriate tax

Australia

Country
Tax Update